(2007) The transition from higher education into work: Tales of cohesion and fragmentation, Education + Training 49 (7): 516585. Personal characteristics, habits, and attitudes influence how you interact with others. In such labour market contexts, HE regulates more clearly graduates access to particular occupations. Hinchliffe, G. and Jolly, A. The paper explores some of the conceptual notions that have informed understandings of graduate employability, and argues for a broader understanding of employability than that offered by policymakers. Chapter 2 is to refute the Classical theory of employment and unemployment on both empirical and logical grounds. 's (2005) research showed similar patterns among UK Masters students who, as delayed entrants to the labour market and investors in further human capital, possess a range of different approaches to their future career progression. While some graduates have acquired and drawn upon specialised skill-sets, many have undertaken employment pathways that are only tangential to what they have studied. Brooks, R. and Everett, G. (2009) Post-graduate reflections on the value of a degree, British Educational Research Journal 35 (3): 333349. Conversely, traditional middle-class graduates are more able to add value to their credentials and more adept at exploiting their pre-existing levels of cultural capital, social contacts and connections (Ball, 2003; Power and Whitty, 2006). Name one consensus theory and one conflict theory. Under consensus theory the absence of conflict is seen as the equilibrium . The theory rests on the assumption that Conservative governments in this time period made an accommodation with the social democratic policy . The traditional human and cultural capital that employers have always demanded now constitutes only part of graduates employability narratives. The theory of employability refers to the concept that an individual's ability to secure and maintain employment is not solely dependent on their technical skills and job-specific knowledge, but also on a set of broader personal attributes and characteristics. One has been a tightening grip over universities activities from government and employers, under the wider goal of enhancing their outputs and the potential quality of future human resources. This is then linked to research that has examined the way in which students and graduates are managing the transition into the labour market. Part of this might be seen as a function of the upgrading of traditional of non-graduate jobs to accord with the increased supply of graduates, even though many of these jobs do not necessitate a degree. They are (i) Business graduates require specific employability skills; (2) Curricular changes enhance . This tends to be mediated by a range of contextual variables in the labour market, not least graduates relations with significant others in the field and the specific dynamics inhered in different forms of employment. A more specific set of issues have arisen concerning the types of individuals organisations want to recruit, and the extent to which HEIs can serve to produce them. A consensus theory approach sees sport as a source of collective harmony, a way of binding people together in a shared experience. Johnston, B. The relatively stable and coherent employment narratives that individuals traditionally enjoyed have given way to more fractured and uncertain employment futures brought about by the intensity and inherent precariousness of the new short-term, transactional capitalism (Strangleman, 2007). Kelsall, R.K., Poole, A. and Kuhn, A. Thus, HE has been traditionally viewed as providing a positive platform from which graduates could integrate successfully into economic life, as well as servicing the economy effectively. What this has shown is that graduates see the link between participation in HE and future returns to have been disrupted through mass HE. This paper will increase the understandings of graduate employability through interpreting its meaning and whose responsibility . of employability has been subjected to little conceptual examination. Fugate and Kinicki (2008, p.9) describe career identity as "one's self-definition in the career context."Chope and Johnson (2008, p. 47) define career identity in a more scientific manner where they state that "career identity reflects the degree to which individuals define themselves in terms of a particular organisation, job, profession, or industry". These two theories are usually spoken of as in opposition based on their arguments. Morley (2001) however states that employability . It also introduces 'positional conflict theory' as a way of Consensus Theory: the Basics According to consensus theories, for the most part society works because most people are successfully socialised into shared values through the family In some countries, for instance Germany, HE is a clearer investment as evinced in marked wage and opportunity differences between graduate and non-graduate forms of employment. As HE's role for regulating future professional talent becomes reshaped, questions prevail over whose responsibility it is for managing graduates transitions and employment outcomes: universities, states, employers or individual graduates themselves? Such strategies typically involve the accruement of additional forms of credentials and capitals that can be converted into economic gain. The Wall Street Journal reported Sunday that the department had reached a "low confidence" conclusion supporting the so-called lab leak theory in a classified finding shared with the White . . (2007) Does higher education matter? Individuals therefore need to proactively manage these risks (Beck and Beck-Gernsheim, 2002). (2009) Over-education and the skills of UK graduates, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 172 (2): 307337. 229240. One particular consequence of a massified, differentiated HE is therefore likely to be increased discrimination between different types of graduates. Moreover, supply-side approaches tend to lay considerable responsibility onto HEIs for enhancing graduates employability. HE has traditionally helped regulate the flow of skilled, professional and managerial workers. Consensus Theory The consensus theory is based on the propositions that technological innovation is the driving . Little (2001) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional concept, and there is a need to distinguish between the factors relevant to the job and preparation for work. This has tended to challenge some of the traditional ways of understanding graduates and their position in the labour market, not least classical theories of cultural reproduction. Ainley, P. (1994) Degrees of Difference, London: Lawrence Washart. On the other hand, less optimistic perspectives tend to portray contemporary employment as being both more intensive and precarious (Sennett, 2006). Young, M. (2009) Education, globalisation and the voice of knowledge, Journal of Education and Work 22 (3): 193204. Chapter 1 1. Kupfer, A. (2003) The Future of Higher Education, London: HMSO. Consequently, they will have to embark upon increasingly uncertain employment futures, continually having to respond to the changing demands of internal and external labour markets. Tomlinson's research also highlighted the propensity towards discourses of self-responsibilisation by students making the transitions to work. Warhurst, C. (2008) The knowledge economy, skills and government labour market intervention, Policy Studies 29 (1): 7186. In sociological debates, consensus theory has been seen as in opposition to conflict theory. The neo-Weberian theorising of Collins (2000) has been influential here, particularly in examining the ways in which dominant social groups attempt to monopolise access to desired economic goods, including the best jobs. Maria Eliophotou Menon, Eleftheria Argyropoulou & Andreas Stylianou, Ly Thi Tran, Nga Thi Hang Ngo, Tien Thi Hanh Ho, David Walters, David Zarifa & Brittany Etmanski, Jason L. Brown, Sara J. Employability. It will further show that while common trends are evident across national context, the HElabour market relationship is also subject to national variability. %PDF-1.7 Moreau and Leathwood reported strong tendencies for graduates to attribute their labour market outcomes and success towards personal attributes and qualities as much as the structure of available opportunities. Bowman et al. Department for Education Skills (DFES). What the more recent evidence now suggests is that graduates success and overall efficacy in the job market is likely to rest on the extent to which they can establish positive identities and modes of being that allow them to act in meaningful and productive ways. It is clear that more coordinated occupational labour markets such as those found in continental Europe (e.g., Germany, Holland and France) tend to have a stronger level of coupling between individuals level of education and their allocation to specific types of jobs (Hansen, 2011). It is also considered as both a product (a set of skills that enable) and as a . Archer, L., Hutchens, M. and Ross, A. Moreover, individual graduates may need to reflexively align themselves to the new challenges of labour market, from which they can make appropriate decisions around their future career development and their general life courses. This paper aims to place the issue of graduate employability in the context of the shifting inter-relationship between HE and the labour market, and the changing regulation of graduate employment. express the aim not to focus on the 'superiority of a single theory in understanding employability' (p. 897), . Consensus Theory. For graduates, the process of realising labour market goals, of becoming a legitimate and valued employee, is a continual negotiation and involves continual identity work. Clarke, M. (2008) Understanding and managing employability in changing career contexts, Journal of European Industrial Training 32 (4): 258284. Hesketh, A.J. Conflict theory in sociology. Over time, however, this traditional link between HE and the labour market has been ruptured. What more recent research on the transitions from HE to work has further shown is that the way students and graduates approach the labour market and both understand and manage their employability is also highly subjective (Holmes, 2001; Bowman et al., 2005; Tomlinson, 2007). Elias and Purcell's (2004) research has reported positive overall labour market outcomes in graduates early career trajectories 7 years on from graduation: in the main graduates manage to secure paid employment and enjoy comparatively higher earning than non-graduates. The most discernable changes in HE have been its gradual massification over the past three decades and, in more recent times, the move towards greater individual expenditure towards HE in the form of student fees. Despite the limitations, the model is adopted to evaluate the role of education stakeholders in the Nigerian HE. A number of tensions and potential contradictions may arise from this, resulting mainly from competing agendas and interpretations over the ultimate purpose of a university education and how its provision should best be arranged. The perspective gained much currency in the mid 20th century in the works of Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons, for whom . Ideally, graduates would be able to possess both the hard currencies in the form of traditional academic qualifications together with soft currencies in the form of cultural and interpersonal qualities. Learning and employability are clearly supportive constructs but this relationship appears to be under represented and lacks clarity. Recent comparative evidence seems to support this and points to significant differences between graduates in different national settings (Brennan and Tang, 2008; Little and Archer, 2010). Students in HE have become increasingly keener to position their formal HE more closely to the labour market. Employment relations is the study of the regulation of the employment relationship between employer and employee, both collectively and individually, and the determination . Overall, consensus theory is a useful perspective for understanding the role of crime in society and the ways in which it serves as a means of defining and enforcing social norms and values. The strengths of consensus theory are that it is a more objective approach and that it is easier to achieve agreement. conventional / consensus perspective that places . Employability is a promise to employees that they will hold the accomplishments to happen new occupations rapidly if their occupations end out of the blue ( Baruch, 2001 ) . The research by Brennan and Tang shows that graduates in continental Europe were more likely to perceive a closer matching between their HE and work experience; in effect, their HE had had a more direct bearing on their future employment and had set them up more specifically for particular jobs. This has been driven mainly by a number of key structural changes both to higher education institutions (HEIs) and in the nature of the economy. The correspondence between HE and the labour market rests largely around three main dimensions: (i) in terms of the knowledge and skills that HE transfers to graduates and which then feeds back into the labour market, (ii) the legitimatisation of credentials that serve as signifiers to employers and enable them to screen prospective future employees and (iii) the enrichment of personal and cultural attributes, or what might be seen as personality. The expansion of HE, and the creation of new forms of HEIs and degree provision, has resulted in a more heterogeneous mix of graduates leaving universities (Scott, 2005). Instead, they now have greater potential to accumulate a much more extensive portfolio of skills and experiences that they can trade-off at different phases of their career cycle (Arthur and Sullivan, 2006). Wilton, N. (2008) Business graduates and management jobs: An employability match made in heaven? Journal of Education and Work 21 (2): 143158. Little (2001) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional concept, and there is a need to distinguish between the factors relevant to the job and preparation for work. While investment in HE may result in favourable outcomes for some graduates, this is clearly not the case across the board. A range of key factors seem to determine graduates access to different returns in the labour market that are linked to the specific profile of the graduate. The relative symbolic violence and capital that some institutions transfer onto different graduates may inevitably feed into their identities, shaping their perceived levels of personal or identity capital. Englewood Cliffs . That graduates employability is intimately related to personal identities and frames of reference reflects the socially constructed nature of employability more generally: it entails a negotiated ordering between the graduate and the wider social and economic structures through which they are navigating. The extent to which future work forms a significant part of their future life goals is likely to determine how they approach the labour market, as well as their own future employability. This is likely to be carried through into the labour market and further mediated by graduates ongoing experiences and interactions post-university. Moreover, this is likely to shape their orientations towards the labour market, potentially affecting their overall trajectories and outcomes. Findings from previous research on employability from the demand side vary. Consensus Vs. Much of the graduate employability focus has been on supply-side responses towards enhancing graduates skills for the labour market. Smart et al. Structural Functionalism/ Consensus Theory. The social cognitive career theory (SCTT), based on Bandura's (2002) General social cognitive theory, suggests that self-perceived employability affects an individual's career interest and behavior, and that self-perceived employability is a determinant of an individual's ability to find a job (lvarez-Gonzlez et al., 2017). known as "Graduate Employability" (Harvey 2003; Yorke 2006). . The label consensus theory of truth is currently attached to a number of otherwise very diverse philosophical perspectives. In addition, the human development theory and the human capital theory come to the forefront whenever employability is considered. For other students, careers were far more tangential to their personal goals and lifestyles, and were not something they were prepared to make strong levels of personal and emotional investment towards. Similar to Holmes (2001) work, such research illustrates that graduates career progression rests on the extent to which they can achieve affirmed and legitimated identities within their working lives. The more recent policy in the United Kingdom towards raising fee levels has coincided with an economic downturn, generating concerns over the value and returns of a university degree. The consensus theory emphasizes that the social order is through the shared norms, and belief systems of people. . and Soskice, D.W. (2001) Varieties of Capitalism: The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage, Oxford: Oxford University Press. The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. The purpose of this paper is to adopt the perspective of personal construct theory to conceptualise employability. The employability and labour market returns of graduates also appears to have a strong international dimension to it, given that different national economies regulate the relationship between HE and labour market entry differently (Teichler, 2007). However, conflict theorists view the . This review has highlighted how this shifting dynamic has reshaped the nature of graduates transitions into the labour market, as well as the ways in which they begin to make sense of and align themselves towards future labour market demands. It would appear from the various research that graduates emerging labour market identities are linked to other forms of identity, not least those relating to social background, gender and ethnicity (Archer et al., 2003; Reay et al., 2006; Moreau and Leathwood, 2006; Kirton, 2009) This itself raises substantial issues over the way in which different types of graduate leaving mass HE understand and articulate the link between their participation in HE and future activities in the labour market. Brown, P., Lauder, H. and Ashton, D.N. Summary. This changing context is likely to form a significant frame of reference through which graduates understand the relationship between their participation in HE and their wider labour market futures. This has some significant implications for the ways in which they understand their employability and the types of credentials and forms of capital around which this is built. This is further likely to be mediated by national labour market structures in different national settings that differentially regulate the position and status of graduates in the economy. Scott, P. (2005) Universities and the knowledge economy, Minerva 43 (3): 297309. The construction of personal employability does not stop at graduation: graduates appear aware of the need for continued lifelong learning and professional development throughout the different phases of their career progression. 213240. For instance, non-traditional students who had studied at local institutions may be far more likely to fix their career goals around local labour markets, some of which may afford limited opportunities for career progression. The problem has been largely attributable to universities focusing too rigidly on academically orientated provision and pedagogy, and not enough on applied learning and functional skills. Teichler, U. The consensus theory of employment argues that technological innovation is the driving force of social change (Drucker, 1993, Kerr, 1973). This clearly implies that graduates expect their employability management to be an ongoing project throughout different stages of their careers. Ball, S.J. (2006) showed that students choices towards studying at particular HEIs are likely to reflect subsequent choices. (2011) Graduate identity and employability, British Educational Research Journal 37 (4): 563584. Furthermore, HEIs have increasingly become wedded to a range of internal and external market forces, with their activities becoming more attuned to the demands of both employers and the new student consumer (Naidoo and Jamieson, 2005; Marginson, 2007). There are many different lists of cardinal accomplishments . Brennan, J., Kogan, M. and Teichler, U. Consensus theories posit that laws are created using group rational to determine what behaviors are deviant and/or criminal to protect society from harm. These negotiations continue well into graduates working lives, as they continue to strive towards establishing credible work identities. Employers propensities towards recruiting specific types of graduates perhaps reflects deep-seated issues stemming from more transactional, cost-led and short-term approaches to developing human resources (Warhurst, 2008). It first relates the theme of graduate employability to the changing dynamic in the relationship between HE and the labour market, and the changing role of HE in regulating graduate-level work. . 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. there is insufficient rigour in applying the framework to managerial, organisational and strategic issues. This was a model developed by Lorraine Dacre Pool and Peter Sewell in 2007 which identifies five essential elements that aid employability: Career Development Learning: the knowledge, skills and experience to help people manage and develop their careers. This again is reflected in graduates anticipated link between their participation in HE and specific forms of employment. Archer, W. and Davison, J. They nevertheless remain committed to HE as a key economic driver, although with a new emphasis on further rationalising the system through cutting-back university services, stricter prioritisation of funding allocation and higher levels of student financial contribution towards HE through the lifting of the threshold of university fee contribution (DFE, 2010). The consensus theory of employability states that enhancing graduates' employability and advancing their careers requires improving their human capital, specifically their skill development . Longitudinal research on graduates transitions to the labour market (Holden and Hamblett, 2007; Nabi et al., 2010) also illustrates that graduates initial experiences of the labour market can confirm or disrupt emerging work-related identities. Most significantly, they may be better able to demonstrate the appropriate personality package increasingly valued in the more elite organisations (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Brown and Lauder, 2009). The development of mass HE, together with a range of work-related changes, has placed considerably more attention upon the economic value and utility of university graduates. [PDF] Graduate Employability Skills: Differences between the Private and 02 May 2015 Education is vital in the knowledge economy as the commodity of . Purpose. Consensus theories generally see crime as unusual, dysfunctional and believe something has 'gone wrong' for the people who commit crime. Slider with three articles shown per slide. *1*.J\ Harvey, L., Moon, S. and Geall, V. (1997) Graduates Work: Organisational Change and Students Attributes, Birmingham: QHE. The changing HEeconomy dynamic feeds into a range of further significant issues, not least those relating to equity and access in the labour market. Thus, graduates who are confined to non-graduate occupations, or even new forms of employment that do not necessitate degree-level study, may find themselves struggling to achieve equitable returns. Increasingly, individual graduates are no longer constrained by the old corporate structures that may have traditionally limited their occupational agility. The New Right argues that liberal left politicians and welfare policies have undermined the . Again, graduates respond to the challenges of increasing flexibility, individualisation and positional competition in different ways. Employment in Academia: To What Extent Are Recent Doctoral Graduates of Various Fields of Study Obtaining Permanent Versus Temporary Academic Jobs in Canada? Graduates appear to be valued on a range of broad skills, dispositions and performance-based activities that can be culturally mediated, both in the recruitment process and through the specific contexts of their early working lives. An example of this is the family. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in Holmes, L. (2001) Graduate employability: The graduate identity approach, Quality in Higher Education 7 (1): 111119. The evidence suggests that some graduates assume the status of knowledge workers more than others, as reflected in the differential range of outcomes and opportunities they experience. (2006) The evolution of the boundaryless career concept: Examining the physical and psychological mobility, Journal of Vocational Behavior 69 (1): 1929. Compelling evidence on employers approaches to managing graduate talent (Brown and Hesketh, 2004) exposes this situation quite starkly. Moreover, they will be more productive, have higher earning potential and be able to access a range of labour market goods including better working conditions, higher status and more fulfilling work. (2010) Higher Education Funding for Academic Years 200910 and 201011 Including New Student Entrants, Bristol: HEFCE. Furthermore, as Bridgstock (2009) has highlighted, generic skills discourses often fail to engage with more germane understandings of the actual career-salient skills graduates genuinely need to navigate through early career stages. 2003) and attempts to seek integrate them by formulating a model of explanatory form together with the existing empirical literature. This insight, combined with a growing consensus that government should try to stabilize employment, has led to much . and Leathwood, C. (2006) Graduates employment and discourse of employability: A critical analysis, Journal of Education and Work 18 (4): 305324. The theory of employability can be hard to place ; there can be many factors that contribute to the thought of being employable. Brown, P. and Hesketh, A.J. <>stream Argues that even employable people may fail to find jobs because of positional competition in the knowledge-driven economy. As Clarke (2008) illustrates, the employability discourse reflects the increasing onus on individual employees to continually build up their repositories of knowledge and skills in an era when their career progression is less anchored around single organisations and specific job types. Indeed, there appears a need for further research on the overall management of graduate careers over the longer-term course of their careers. Thus, a significant feature of research over the past decade has been the ways in which these changes have entered the collective and personal consciousnesses of students and graduates leaving HE. Greenbank, P. (2007) Higher education and the graduate labour market: The Class Factor, Tertiary Education and Management 13 (4): 365376. Traditionally, linkages between the knowledge and skills produced through universities and those necessitated by employers have tended to be quite flexible and open-ended. In flexible labour markets, such as the United Kingdom this remains high. Accordingly, there has been considerable government faith in the role of HE in meeting new economic imperatives. Graduates in different occupations were shown to be drawing upon particular graduate skill-sets, be that occupation-specific expertise, managerial decision-making skills, and interactive, communication-based competences. (2008) Managing in the New Economy: Restructuring White-Collar Work in the USA, UK and Japan, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Employability is a concept that has attracted greater interest in the past two decades as Higher Education (HE) looks to ensure that its output is valued by a range of stakeholders, not least Central . They also include the professional skills that enable you to be successful in the workplace. These concerns have been given renewed focus in the current climate of wider labour market uncertainty. (2009) Processes of middle-class reproduction in a graduate employment scheme, Journal of Education and Work 22 (1): 3553. Nabi, G., Holden, R. and Walmsley, A. (2007) Round and round the houses: The Leitch review of skills, Local Economy 22 (2): 111117. Self-Responsibilisation by students making the transitions to work of people as in opposition to conflict.... 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